German scholars in the 18th and 19th centuries meticulously analyzed the Old Testament (especially the Pentateuch, the first five books) and identified inconsistencies, repetitions, and differences in style, vocabulary, and theological perspectives. They argued that these features suggested the Pentateuch was not written by a single author (traditionally attributed to Moses) but rather compiled from multiple, independent sources. Here's a breakdown of how they arrived at this conclusion:
1. Doublets and Contradictions:
* Duplicated Stories: Scholars noticed that some stories appeared twice, often with slightly different details or perspectives. A prime example is the two creation accounts in Genesis 1 and 2. The flood story also has multiple versions intertwined.
* Contradictory Laws: Different legal codes within the Pentateuch seem to contradict each other on topics such as sacrifice, festivals, and the treatment of slaves.
* Inconsistent Information: Different accounts give different genealogies, place names, and dates.
2. Variations in Style and Vocabulary:
* Distinct Writing Styles: Certain sections displayed a more poetic and descriptive style, while others were more legalistic or narrative.
* Unique Vocabulary: Different sections consistently used distinct words and phrases to describe the same concepts. For instance, the name used for God varied across different sections. Some used *Elohim* (a generic term for God), while others used *YHWH* (the personal name of God, often translated as "LORD").
* Stylistic Patterns: Researchers identified characteristic phrases, sentence structures, and narrative devices that were consistently associated with certain sections.
3. Differences in Theological Perspective:
* Different Views of God: Some sections portrayed God as more distant and powerful, while others emphasized God's personal involvement and compassion.
* Different Views of Israel's Relationship with God: Some sections stressed obedience to law and ritual purity, while others emphasized social justice and moral righteousness.
* Different Explanations for Israel's Origins: The reasons and motivations for events like the exodus from Egypt differed in emphasis depending on the section of text.
4. Name of God:
* As mentioned above, the consistent use of different names for God (*Elohim* vs. *YHWH*) was a crucial clue. This led to the initial distinction between the "Elohist" and "Yahwist" sources.
5. Geographic and Historical Perspectives:
* The sources seemed to reflect different geographic locations and historical periods. Some sources focused on the Northern Kingdom of Israel, while others emphasized the Southern Kingdom of Judah.
The Documentary Hypothesis
All of these observations led to the development of the Documentary Hypothesis, which proposed that the Pentateuch was compiled from four main independent sources, identified by the letters J, E, D, and P:
* J (Yahwist): Uses the name *YHWH* for God from the beginning of creation. Often characterized by vivid anthropomorphism (God is described with human characteristics) and a focus on the promises to Abraham. Thought to originate in the Southern Kingdom of Judah.
* E (Elohist): Uses the name *Elohim* for God until the revelation to Moses. Tends to portray God as more distant and uses dreams and angels as intermediaries. Thought to originate in the Northern Kingdom of Israel.
* D (Deuteronomist): Found primarily in the book of Deuteronomy. Emphasizes covenant, law, and centralized worship in Jerusalem. Associated with the reforms of King Josiah.
* P (Priestly): Focuses on priestly matters such as ritual, law, genealogy, and the structure of the tabernacle. Characterized by a formal style and a strong emphasis on order and purity. Thought to have been written during or after the Babylonian exile.
The Documentary Hypothesis argues that a later editor (often called the "Redactor") combined these sources, sometimes adding their own material, to create the Pentateuch as we know it.
Key Scholars:
* Jean Astruc (1753): A French physician who noticed the use of different divine names in Genesis and suggested that Moses used different pre-existing documents.
* Johann Gottfried Eichhorn (late 18th century): Expanded on Astruc's work and argued for multiple sources throughout the Pentateuch.
* Karl David Ilgen (late 18th century): Believed that there were two Elohist sources.
* Julius Wellhausen (1878): Developed the "classical" formulation of the Documentary Hypothesis, arguing for the JEDP order and the historical contexts of each source.
Important Considerations:
* The Documentary Hypothesis is not without its critics. Some scholars propose alternative theories, such as the Fragmentary Hypothesis or the Supplementary Hypothesis.
* While the specific details of the Documentary Hypothesis are debated, the general consensus is that the Pentateuch is a complex text with multiple sources and a long history of development.
* The contributions of these German scholars revolutionized the way the Old Testament is studied and understood. Their meticulous analysis and critical thinking laid the foundation for modern biblical scholarship.
In conclusion, the identification of different sources within the Old Testament was a painstaking process based on careful textual analysis and attention to detail. These German scholars were able to identify inconsistencies, variations in style, and differences in theological perspective that suggested the Pentateuch was not the work of a single author but rather a compilation of multiple, independent sources.